Simultaneous Determination of One-Carbon Folate Metabolites and One-Carbon-Related Amino Acids in Biological Samples Using a UHPLC-MS/MS Method.

One-carbon folate metabolites and one-carbon-related amino acids play an important role in human physiology, and their detection in biological samples is essential. However, poor stability as well as low concentrations and occurrence in different species in various biological samples make their quantification very challenging. The aim of this study was to develop a simple, fast, and sensitive ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography MS/MS (UHPLC-MS/MS) method for the simultaneous quantification of various one-carbon folate metabolites (folic acid (FA), tetrahydrofolic acid (THF), p-aminobenzoyl-L-glutamic acid (pABG), 5-formyltetrahydrofolic acid (5-CHOTHF), 5-methyltetrahydrofolic acid (5-CH3THF), 10-formylfolic acid (10-CHOFA), 5,10-methenyl-5,6,7,8-tetrahydrofolic acid (5,10-CH+-THF), and 4-α-hydroxy-5-methyltetrahydrofolate (hmTHF)) and one-carbon-related amino acids (homocysteine (Hcy), methionine (Met), S-ade-L-homocysteine (SAH), and S-ade-L-methionine (SAM)). The method was standardized and validated by determining the selectivity, carryover, limits of detection, limits of quantitation, linearity, precision, accuracy, recovery, and matrix effects. The extraction methods were optimized with respect to several factors: protease-amylase treatment on embryos, deconjugation time, methanol precipitation, and proteins' isoelectric point precipitation on the folate recovery. Ten one-carbon folate metabolites and four one-carbon-related amino acids were detected using the UHPLC-MS/MS technique in various biological samples. The measured values of folate in human plasma, serum, and whole blood (WB) lay within the concentration range for normal donors. The contents of each analyte in mouse plasma were as follows: pABG (864.0 nmol/L), 5-CH3THF (202.2 nmol/L), hmTHF (122.2 nmol/L), Met (8.63 µmol/L), and SAH (0.06 µmol/L). The concentration of each analyte in mouse embryos were as follows: SAM (1.09 µg/g), SAH (0.13 µg/g), Met (16.5 µg/g), 5,10-CH+THF (74.3 ng/g), pABG (20.6 ng/g), and 5-CH3THF (185.4 ng/g). A simple and rapid sample preparation and UHPLC-MS/MS method was developed and validated for the simultaneous determination of the one-carbon-related folate metabolites and one-carbon-related amino acids in different biological samples.

Regulation of the Ice â to Ice III high pressure phase transition meta-stability in milk and its bactericidal effects.

This study was focused on a novel approach of creating perturbations under high pressure (HP) meta-stable Ice Ⅰ to Ice Ⅲ phase transition and its bactericidal effects. Experiments were carried out under subzero high pressure processing conditions using Escherichia coli suspended in milk, and the microbial inactivation before and after the meta-stable state regulation was compared. The phase transition position of unperturbed milk was 302 MPa/-37.5 °C. The volume change resulting from the phase transition was employed as the perturbation mechanism. Glucose (5 %, 20 %) and sodium chloride solutions (5 %, 20 %) were used as regulatory sources. Glucose solutions accelerated the phase change of the milk better than the sodium chloride solution and resulted in an optimum phase transition position of milk at 243 MPa/-30.6 °C. The induced perturbations accelerated meta-stable transformation and enhanced the microbial destruction. At 330 MPa/3s, compared to the unfrozen samples, the lethality of E. coli in the frozen-regulated samples significantly increased by 1.79 log. The relationship between the E. coli inactivation within the phase change pressure range and the pressure was not continuous, but a segmented one, both before and after meta-stable state regulation. A higher level of E. coli destruction was accomplished by a 5 min pressure-holding of frozen samples at 220 MPa and 280 MPa as compared to the one-pulse and two-pulses treatments without holding time. The maximum lethality of 6.73 log was achieved at 280 MPa/5 min in the frozen-regulated application.

Effects of high-pressure processing on the physicochemical and adsorption properties, structural characteristics, and dietary fiber content of kelp (Laminaria japonica).

To investigate the effects of high-pressure processing (HPP) on the physicochemical and adsorption properties and structural characteristics of kelp, kelp slice (KS) and kelp powder (KP) were treated under different pressures (300, 450, and 600 MPa) for 5 and 10 min. Compared to untreated KP, HPP-treated KP yielded a 1.31-fold increase in water holding capacity (600 MPa/5 min), a 0.12-fold increase in swelling capacity (450 MPa/10 min), a 1.33-fold increase in oil holding capacity (600 MPa/10 min), a 10-fold increase in glucose adsorption capacity (450 MPa/10 min), and a 0.22-fold increase in cholesterol adsorption capacity (163.1 mg/g DW at 450 MPa/10 min), and exhibited good Cd (Ⅱ) adsorption capacity when its concentration was 10 mmol/L in the small intestine. The physicochemical properties of HPP-treated KS were not improved due to its low specific surface area. In addition, HPP treatment efficiently reduced the particle size of KP and increased its total and soluble dietary fiber content by 17% and 63% at 600 MPa/10 min, respectively. Scanning electron microscope micrographs demonstrated that the surface of HPP-treated KP was rough and porous, and the specific surface area increased with increasing pressure and processing time. To conclude, the results obtained in the present study suggest that HPP is a promising processing method for improving the functionality and structural characteristics of KP and provide a theoretical basis for the utilization of HPP-treated KP as a fiber-rich ingredient in the functional food industry.

Recent developments in applications of physical fields for microbial decontamination and enhancing nutritional properties of germinated edible seeds and sprouts: a review.

Germinated edible seeds and sprouts have attracted consumers because of their nutritional values and health benefits. To ensure the microbial safety of the seed and sprout, emerging processing methods involving physical fields (PFs), having the characteristics of high efficiency and environmental safety, are increasingly proposed as effective decontamination processing technologies. This review summarizes recent progress on the application of PFs to germinating edible seeds, including their impact on microbial decontamination and nutritional quality and the associated influencing mechanisms in germination. The effectiveness, application scope, and limitation of the various physical techniques, including ultrasound, microwave, radio frequency, infrared heating, irradiation, pulsed light, plasma, and high-pressure processing, are symmetrically reviewed. Good application potential for improving seed germination and sprout growth is also described for promoting the accumulation of bioactive compounds in sprouts, and subsequently enhancing the antioxidant capacity under favorable PFs processing conditions. Moreover, the challenges and future directions of PFs in the application to germinated edible seeds are finally proposed. This review also attempts to provide an in-depth understanding of the effects of PFs on microbial safety and changes in nutritional properties of germinating edible seeds and a theoretical reference for the future development of PFs in processing safe sprouted seeds.

Antibacterial activity and improvement of the oxidative stability of soybean oil by 4-hydroxybenzyl isothiocyanate from white mustard seeds.

4-Hydroxybenzyl isothiocyanate (4-HBITC) is one of the most important secondary metabolite products in white mustard seeds. The antibacterial activity and inhibition of lipid oxidation of 4-HBITC were investigated. The results indicated that 4-HBITC had a significant antibacterial effect on Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Salmonella typhimurium, and its effect on gram-positive bacteria was superior to that on gram-negative bacteria. The combination of 4-HBITC with citric acid or ascorbic acid had a better antibacterial effect than adding them alone. The antibacterial mechanism of 4-HBITC to affect the metabolic activity rather than the integrity or the permeability of cell membranes was identified. In addition, white mustard seed extract which contains 4-HBITC was found to extend the oxidative stability of soybean oil, and this effect was also improved after the combination of 4-HBITC with citric acid. These results indicated that 4-HBITC and white mustard seed extract have potential for application as a natural preservatives in food and for improving the oxidative stability of edible oils.

Facilitation of metastable ice â - ice III phase transition of liquid foods at high-pressure sub-zero temperature by perturbation.

In this study, the distribution of ice Ⅰ - ice III phase transition positions and its influencing factors on various fruit juices and food model solutions under high pressure (HP) were investigated. In addition, the effect of perturbation on induction of phase change in metastable apple juice was also explored. The phase transition positions of fruit juice samples deviated far from the theoretical value (210 MPa/ -21 °C), with pressure in range of 268 âˆ¼ 305 MPa and temperature between -31.09 °C and -37.21 °C, with the most extreme phase transition position of 305 MPa/ -37.21 °C for apple juice. The phase change position was affected by the type of solution but not by the concentration of solutions. The cooling media namely, sodium chloride (5%, 20%) and glucose solution (5%, 20%) were used as perturbation sources to stimulate the metastable apple juice by using instantaneous volume reduction during the ice Ⅰ - ice III phase transition. They successfully promoted the phase transition of apple juice, where 20% sodium chloride solution significantly (p < 0.05) reduced the phase change pressure of apple juice to 239 MPa. The perturbation effect was influenced by the type and concentration of the perturbation source, the composition of the cavity area and the softness of the sample container.

Inactivation of Group I and Group II Clostridium botulinum spores by ultraviolet irradiation in water.

Spores of Clostridium botulinum are widely distributed in the environment, including in foods. Prevention of foodborne botulism relies on the inhibition of spore germination and subsequent growth and toxin production, or the destruction of viable spores in food and beverages. This study examined the lethality of 254 nm UV radiation (UV-C) to spores of Group I and Group II C. botulinum. Spores of C. botulinum were inactivated by UV-C, with doses required for incremental log reduction (D10) values calculated using linear regression ranging from 2.87 to 3.70 mJ/cm2 for Group I strains and 4.46 to 6.15 mJ/cm2 for Group II strains. The measured D10 value for spores of C. sporogenes ATCC 19404 was 8.27 mJ/cm2 indicating it was more resistant than the strains of C. botulinum used in this study. Calculation of dose per log using a Weibull model resulted in higher D10 values of 6.67 to 8.81 mJ/cm2 for Group I strains and 9.24 to 10.7 mJ/cm2 for Group II strains. Spores of C. sporogenes possessed a D10 value of 14.4 mJ/cm2. The higher values for the Weibull model indicate the Weibull model to be more conservative as a result as it factors in the lag prior to inactivation and the tailing observed with very low numbers of survivors. Spores of both Group I and Group II C. botulinum strains tended to form large aggregates, visible with phase contrast microscopy, that resulted in severe tailing. Disruption of aggregates by ultrasonication was necessary to obtain linear destruction curves extending beyond 5 log reduction. All strains from Group I and Group II required <55 mJ/cm2 to achieve 5 log inactivation. The strain of C. sporogenes used in this work can therefore be a conservative non-pathogenic surrogate, having higher UV-C resistance than the C. botulinum strains used in this study. Overall, this study is the first detailed study to demonstrate UV-C as an effective treatment method to inactivate C. botulinum spores in a suspending medium. In addition, the study paves the way for further studies towards the applications of this technology to inactivate C. botulinum spores in beverages or other liquids.

An Automated Image Processing Module for Quality Evaluation of Milled Rice.

The paper demonstrates a low-cost rice quality assessment system based on image processing and machine learning (ML) algorithms. A Raspberry-Pi based image acquisition module was developed to extract the structural and geometric features from 3081 images of eight different varieties of rice grains. Based on features such as perimeter, area, solidity, roundness, compactness, and shape factor, an automatic identification system is developed to segment the grains based on their types and classify them by using seven machine learning algorithms. These ML models are trained using the images and are compared using different ML models. ROC curves are plotted for each model for quantitative analysis to assess the model's performance. It is concluded that the random forest classifier presents an accuracy of 77 percent and is the best-performing model for the classification of rice varieties. Furthermore, the same algorithm is efficiently employed to determine the price of adulterated rice samples based upon the market price of individual rice.

Roles of physical fields in the extraction of pectin from plant food wastes and byproducts: A systematic review.

Pectin is a naturally occurring hydrocolloid found in the cell wall and middle lamella of many plants and has numerous functional applications in food and other related industries. The type of extraction methods used in production has a strong influence on the structural or physicochemical properties of the resultant pectin and the potential application or market value of the produced pectin. Many conventional extraction methods are well-established and commercially well adopted. However, the increased demand for pectin due to limitations of the existing methods in terms of efficiency and influence on end product quality has been renewed in developing novel techniques or procedures that help to alleviate these problems. In this review paper, a series of strategies involving the application of physical fields, such as acoustic, electromagnetic, electric and mechanical one, are reviewed for potential opportunities to improve the yield and quality attributes of pectin extracted from plant food wastes and byproducts. The extraction mechanism, processing equipment, key operating parameters as well as advantages and disadvantages of each method are systematically reviewed, and findings and conclusions on the potential applications of each method are described. Moreover, the challenges and future directions of physical field assisted extraction (PFAE) of pectin are also discussed to facilitate a better understanding of the complex mechanism in PFAE and optimizing operational parameters. This review may also provide specific theoretical information and practical applications to improve the design and scale up PFAE of pectin.

Formation of hydroxyphenyl-pyranoanthocyanins derived from cyanidin-3-O-glucoside and effects of high-pressure processing on the transformation efficiency.

Hydroxyphenyl-pyranoanthocyanins (PACNs), derived from anthocyanins (ACNs) reacted with hydroxycinnamic acids, have higher practical application value because of better physicochemical stability than their precursors. However, the slow formation rate restricted their broader applications. In the present study, cyanidin-3-O-glucoside (C3G) was chosen to react with four kinds of hydroxycinnamic acids in a model solution. Changes of color and the production of hydroxyphenyl-PACNs were monitored. The formation of derivatives was time-dependent, and the orange-yellow changing trend was correlated with the formation of PACNs and the consumption of C3G. In addition, high-pressure processing (HPP) as a widely-used non-thermal processing method in the food industry was conducted to investigate its impact on hydroxyphenyl-PACNs formation. The results showed that HPP significantly improves the yield of two types of hydroxyphenyl-PACNs (C3G-4-vinylcatechol and C3G-4-vinylphenol) and the retention of total residual pigments during 56 days of storage. Therefore, HPP contributed to color-protecting and the transformation of hydroxyphenyl-PACNs.

Optimization of Wall Material of Freeze-Dried High-Bioactive Microcapsules with Yellow Onion Rejects Using Simplex Centroid Mixture Design Approach Based on Whey Protein Isolate, Pectin, and Sodium Caseinate as Incorporated Variables.

For the food sector, onion rejects are an appealing source of value-added byproducts. Bioactive compounds were recovered from yellow onion rejects using a pulse electric field process at 6000 v and 60 pulses. The onion extract was encapsulated with whey protein isolate (WPI), pectin (P), and sodium caseinate (SC) with a mass ratio of 1:5 (extract/wall material, w/w). A Simplex lattice with augmented axial points in the mixture design was applied for the optimization of wall material for the encapsulation of onion reject extract by freeze-drying (FD). The optimal wall materials were 47.6 g/100 g (SC), 10.0 g/100 g (P), and 42.4 g/100 g (WPI), with encapsulation yield (EY) of 85.1%, total phenolic content (TPC) of 48.7 mg gallic acid equivalent/g DW, total flavonoid content (TFC) of 92.0 mg quercetin equivalent/g DW, and DPPH capacity of 76.1%, respectively. The morphological properties of the optimal encapsulate demonstrated spherical particles with a rough surface. At optimal conditions, the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the extract (mean diameter of inhibition zone: 18.8 mm) was shown as antifungal activity against Aspergillus niger.

Recent Progress in the Synergistic Bactericidal Effect of High Pressure and Temperature Processing in Fruits and Vegetables and Related Kinetics.

BACKGROUND: Traditional thermal processing is a widely used method to ensure food safety. However, thermal processing leads to a significant decline in food quality, especially in the case of fruits and vegetables. To overcome this drawback, researchers are extensively exploring alternative non-thermal High-Pressure Processing (HPP) technology to ensure microbial safety and retaining the sensory and nutritional quality of food. However, HPP is unable to inactivate the spores of some pathogenic bacteria; thus, HPP in conjunction with moderate- and low-temperature is employed for inactivating the spores of harmful microorganisms. Scope and approach: In this paper, the inactivation effect of high-pressure and high-pressure thermal processing (HPTP) on harmful microorganisms in different food systems, along with the bactericidal kinetics model followed by HPP in certain food samples, have been reviewed. In addition, the effects of different factors such as microorganism species and growth stage, process parameters and pressurization mode, and food composition on microbial inactivation under the combined high-pressure and moderate/low-temperature treatment were discussed. KEY FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS: The establishment of a reliable bactericidal kinetic model and accurate prediction of microbial inactivation will be helpful for industrial design, development, and optimization of safe HPP and HPTP treatment conditions.

The Effect of Pressure-Shift Freezing versus Air Freezing and Liquid Immersion on the Quality of Frozen Fish during Storage.

In this study, a self-cooling laboratory system was used for pressure−shift freezing (PSF), and the effects of pressure−shift freezing (PSF) at 150 MPa on the quality of largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) during frozen storage at −30 °C were evaluated and compared with those of conventional air freezing (CAF) and liquid immersion freezing (LIF). The evaluated thawing loss and cooking loss of PSF were significantly lower than those of CAF and LIF during the whole frozen storage period. The thawing loss, L* value, b* value and TBARS of the frozen fish increased during the storage. After 28 days storage, the TBARS values of LIF and CAF were 0.54 and 0.65, respectively, significantly higher (p < 0.05) than the 0.25 observed for PSF. The pH of the samples showed a decreasing trend at first but then increased during the storage, and the CAF had the fastest increasing trend. Based on Raman spectra, the secondary structure of the protein in the PSF-treated samples was considered more stable. The α-helix content of the protein in the unfrozen sample was 59.3 ± 7.22, which decreased after 28 days of frozen storage for PSF, LIF and CAF to 48.5 ± 3.43, 39.1 ± 2.35 and 33.4 ± 4.21, respectively. The results showed that the quality of largemouth bass treated with PSF was better than LIT and CAF during the frozen storage.

Demonstration of Escherichia coli Inactivation in Sterile Physiological Saline under High Pressure (HP) Phase Transition Conditions and Analysis of Probable Contribution of HP Metastable Positions Using Model Solutions and Apple Juice.

It was demonstrated that the inactivation of high pressure (HP) treatment on Escherichia coli survival in sterile physiological saline (SPS) was influenced by the treatment conditions: unfrozen, frozen-thawed and fully frozen (phase transition). In order to probe the enhanced phase transition microbial destruction, vibration effects of phase transition position were created and discussed. Test samples were placed in HP chamber for treatment (150/240/330 MPa, no holding time) at room temperature and a special cooling device was used to maintain the phase transition conditions. Results showed that the phase transition from ice I to ice III of frozen SPS could be realized based on the cooling of a 20% sodium chloride solution. HP treatment under fully frozen conditions produced the best lethal effect compared to unfrozen and freeze-thaw samples. Vibration tests were carried out by using model solutions and apple juice to explore the behavior of phase transition. A synchronous and advance phase transition of internal apple juice was realized, respectively, by using pure water and 5% sodium chloride solution as external vibration sources, and the advance phase transitions of external pure water were realized by using 5% sodium chloride solution and 5% glucose solution as internal vibration sources.

Facilitating high pressure phase-transition research and kinetics studies at subzero temperatures using self-cooling laboratory units.

Self-cooling phase-transition units were built and tested to successfully carryout pressure shift freezing, high pressure thawing and subzero temperature microbial destruction kinetics. The design of these equipment has been progressively improved over the years as highlighted in this paper. Phase transition data on grape & apple juices, and sodium chloride (20%) & glucose solutions (20%) in Ice I were gathered and modeled using Simon-like and polynomial equations. Factors influencing the Ice I and water to Ice III phase transition position were evaluated, and found to be mainly affected by the solute in the aqueous solution. For pressure shifting freezing and pressure assisting freezing to Ice III, water and 20% sodium chloride solution were successfully employed and verified as cooling media for creating the temperature change pathway of potato and carrot. Using sodium chloride solution (20%) as the cooling medium, the phase transition pathway of apple juice and grape juice under high pressure for the phase transition of Ice I and metastable water to Ice III was established. This could be used in kinetic studies. The developed cooling unit concepts can use in any commercial high pressure equipment for subzero temperature treatment of foods without externally supplied cooling.

Effect of Emulsion Particle Size on the Encapsulation Behavior and Oxidative Stability of Spray Microencapsulated Sweet Orange Oil (Citrus aurantium var. dulcis).

Three different feed emulsions of different particle sizes were mixed with a modified starch and maltodextrin and spray dried to make a large (LP), small (SP), and nano-size encapsulated powder (NP), respectively. Emulsion size, oil content, loading capacity (LC), encapsulation efficiency (EE), water content, aw, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), glass transition temperature (Tg), as well as d-limonene release characteristic and limonene oxide formation rate during 37 °C and various aw storage were determined. With the increase of the feed emulsion size, the reconstituted emulsion size of the LP tended to increase and change to a bimodal distribution. The surface oil content increased with the increasing size of the reconstituted emulsion, and the opposite was true for EE. The smaller the reconstituted emulsion size, the higher Tg during a low aw condition. The Tg of the LP, SP and NP were 62, 88, and 100 °C, respectively, and NP > SP > LP. The release and the oxidative rate of d-limonene was the lowest for the NP and then increased for the SP and LP. The release and oxidative rates increased with the elevation of aw and peaked at 0.33. The powder surface morphological structure was intact, the spray-dried powder was more stable, and microstructure changed from a glass state to a rubbery state during storage.

Guidelines on reporting treatment conditions for emerging technologies in food processing.

In the last decades, different non-thermal and thermal technologies have been developed for food processing. However, in many cases, it is not clear which experimental parameters must be reported to guarantee the experiments' reproducibility and provide the food industry a straightforward way to scale-up these technologies. Since reproducibility is one of the most important science features, the current work aims to improve the reproducibility of studies on emerging technologies for food processing by providing guidelines on reporting treatment conditions of thermal and non-thermal technologies. Infrared heating, microwave heating, ohmic heating and radiofrequency heating are addressed as advanced thermal technologies and isostatic high pressure, ultra-high-pressure homogenization sterilization, high-pressure homogenization, microfluidization, irradiation, plasma technologies, power ultrasound, pressure change technology, pulsed electric fields, pulsed light and supercritical CO2 are approached as non-thermal technologies. Finally, growing points and perspectives are highlighted.

Optimized Extraction and Characterization of Folates From Date Palm Fruits and Their Tracking During Fruits Wine Fermentation.

Folates belong to the essential B vitamins group and participate in one-carbon metabolism. Date palm fruits (Phoenix dactilyfera L. family Arecaceae) are consumed by millions of people and are good sources of folates. To date, no detailed study has been carried out on suitable methods for folate extraction from date palm fruits. In the present study, an experimental design using response surface methodology (RSM) was used to maximize the extraction yield of folates from date palm fruits by including enzymatic depectinization. By applying this new strategy and a UHPLC-MS/MS technique for analysis, total folate and different folate vitamers of three cultivars of date palm fruits (Muzafti, Zahdi, and Rubai), brewer's yeast, and fermented date wine were analyzed. The optimized extraction conditions of folates from date palm fruits were found to be a pectinase activity of 47.7 U, an incubation temperature of 40°C, and an incubation time of 38 min, which yielded a total folate content of 191-301 µg/100 g. In brewer's yeast, the extracted total folate content was very high (4,870 µg/100 g), and, in the resulting date wine, it reached a maximum of 700 µg/L on the fifth day. The predominant folate vitamers in date fruit and fruit wine were 5-formyltetrahydrofolate (5-CHO-THF) and 5-methyltetrahydrofolate (5-CH3-THF). During date palm fruit fermentation for up to 8 days, the 5-CHO-THF content gradually decreased by 20%, while 5-CH3-THF increased linearly from day 1 to day 5 (y = 0.058 x + 0.0284, R 2 = 0.9614). This study shows that date palm fruit and fruit wine are excellent sources of folate, and further study can be focused on different methods to improve folate stability during wine storage.

Optimization of ultrasonic-assisted extraction of astaxanthin from green tiger (Penaeus semisulcatus) shrimp shell.

This study was aimed at optimizing the astaxanthin extraction efficiency from shrimp shell (green tiger, Penaeus semisulcatus). Astaxanthin was extracted using selected nonpolar/polar solvents (petroleum ether, n-hexane, ethanol, acetone) individually and in ternary mixtures of petroleum ether, acetone, and water in ratios of 15:50:35, 50:45:5, and 15:75:10 for different times (2,4 and 6 h). The results showed that solvents with higher polarity were more suitable for the extraction of astaxanthin, and increasing the extraction time from 2 to 6 h improved the extraction yield. The conditions of extraction of astaxanthin with the desirable solvent were then optimized with the ultrasonic method using the Box-Behnken design [variables included: extraction temperature (25 to 45 °C), extraction time (5 to 15 min), and ultrasound amplitude (20 to 100%)]. Optimal extraction conditions were determined as the ultrasonic amplitude of 23.6%, extraction time of 13.9 min, and extraction temperature of 26.3 °C. Under this optimum condition, the amount of astaxanthin, ferric reducing antioxidant power, and free radical scavenging capacity of the extract were obtained as 51.5%, 1705 µmol of Fe2+/g, and 73.9%, respectively. Extraction and analysis of the extract at the optimum point were used to validate the results.

Evaluation of Changes in Protein Quality of High-Pressure Treated Aqueous Aquafaba.

Chickpea cooking water (CCW), known as aquafaba, has potential as a replacement for egg whites due to its emulsion and foaming properties which come from the proteins and starch that leach out from chickpeas into the cooking water. High pressure (HP) processing has the ability to modify the functional characteristics of proteins. It is hypothesized that HP processing could favorably affect the functional properties of CCW proteins by influencing their structure. The objective of this study to evaluate the effect of HP treatment on the associated secondary structure, emulsion properties and thermal characteristics of CCW proteins. A central composite rotatable design is used with pressure level (227-573 MPa) and treatment time (6-24 min) as HP variables, and concentration of freeze dried CCW aquafaba powder (11-29%) as product variable, and compared to untreated CCW powder. HP improves aquafaba emulsion properties compared to control sample. HP reduces protein aggregates by 33.3%, while ß-sheets decreases by 4.2-87.6% in which both correlated to increasing protein digestibility. α-helices drops by 50%. It affects the intensity of some HP treated samples, but not the trend of bands in most of them. HP treatment decreases Td and enthalpy because of increasing the degree of denaturation.